Nuernberg Encyclopedia
This is the earliest know version of Hegel’s Encyclopedia, which he wrote for lecturing his older teenage pupil, when he was schoolmaster at the Ägidiengymnasium, Nürnberg.
It is interesting to observe that while the structure of the text is different from the later encyclopedia, the flow of the arguments is often already there. Due to less content and easier language, the flow here is often easier to follow.
Some parts of the translation have been done by translation programs. So it may still contain errors. Please compare the German version, when in doubt. You can also change the language by clicking on the rightmost menu item from the top menu bar .
In case you find some errors or have some suggestions for better translations, please let us know by emailIntroduction
An encyclopedia has as its subject the entire range of sciences according to the subject-matter of each and the basic concept of the same.
The diversity of experience on a general subject brought to the unity of general ideas and the thoughts generated in the contemplation of his essence in their combination make up a special science .
If this link is based on empirical evidence, of which it is the only summarising generality, science is more of a historical nature.
But if the general in the form of basic provisions and concepts precedes and the special is to be derived from it, science is more scientific in nature.
There are no absolute limits to the scope of knowledge, which is supposed to make a science special; for every general or concrete object can be divided into its types or Parts and each such part again can be considered as the subject of a special science .
In an ordinary encyclopedia the sciences are empirically recorded how they find themselves.
They should be listed in full and also put into an order in so far, that the similarity and items of analogous determinations are compiled together accordingly.
But the philosophical encyclopedia is the science of the necessary, the context defined by the term and from the philosophical origin of the basic concepts and principles of the sciences.
It is actually the presentation of the general content of the philosophy, because what is based on reason in the sciences depends on the philosophy; but what in them is based on arbitrary and external determinations is based or, as it is called, positive and statutory, as is the merely empirical, lies beside her.
The sciences are either empirical, according to their mode of knowledge, or or purely rational.
In absolute terms, both should have the same content.
It is the aim of scientific endeavour, to abolish what is merely empirically known to be always true, to the concept, to make it rational and thereby make it available to be incorporated into rational science .
The sciences are expanding partly according to empirical, partly according the rational side.
The latter is done by emphasising the essential more and more, from a general point of view and the purely empirical is understood.
The rational extension of the sciences is also an extension of the philosophy itself.
The whole of science is divided into three main parts:
- logic,
- the science of nature,
- the science of the mind.
For logic is the science of pure concepts and abstract idea.
Nature and spirit make up the reality of the idea, the reality of the Existence, this as knowing itself.
(Or the logical is the eternally simple being in itself; nature is this being as emptied. The spirit is the return of the same in itself from its expression).
The sciences of nature and mind/spirit can be regarded as the applied science, as the system of real or special sciences, in difference to the pure science or logic, as they are the system of pure science in the form of nature and of the mind/spirit.
Part One: Logic
§ 12
Logic is the science of pure mind and pure Reason, the peculiar provisions and laws thereof.
Logic therefore has three sides: 1. the abstract or intelligible, 2. the dialectical or negatively rational, 3. the speculative or positively reasonable.
The reasonable remains with the terms in their fixed determinacy and difference from others; the dialectical shows them in their passing and their dissolution; the speculative or rational grasps their unity in their opposing or the positive in the dissolution and transition.
Understanding and reason are usually understood in the subjective sense, insofar as they belong to a self-consciousness as thinking, and logic is such a purely formal science, which requires another content, an external substance, in order for something really true is to come about.
According to its content, logic regards the mind (“Verstand”) and reason (“Vernunft”) as and for themselves and the absolute concepts (“Begriffe”) as the intrinsically true reason of everything or the sensible and reasonable, insofar as it is not merely a conscious understanding (“begreifen”).
Logic is therefore in itself speculative philosophy, because the speculative way of looking at things is nothing more than the contemplation of the essence of things, which is just as pure a concept peculiar to reason as the nature and the law of things.
The logic breaks down into three parts:
- into the ontological,
- into subjective logic,
- into the theory of ideas.
The former is the system of pure concepts of being, the second is that of pure concepts of the general, the third contains the concept of science.
First Section: Ontological Logic
I. Being
A. Quality
a. Being
§ 16
1. the beginning of science is the immediate, undetermined Concept of
being. -
2. this is in its lack of content so much as the nothing.
The nothing, as a thinking of that emptiness, is thus conversely
itself a being and for the sake of its purity, the same thing as that
-
3. there is therefore no difference between them, but what is, is hereby
only the setting of their as differentiators and the disappearance of
each in its opposite, or it is the becoming pure.
b. Existence
§ 17
But because in the process of becoming, those who have been set before only disappear, so is the becoming of their collapse into a calm simplicity, in which they are not nothing, but also no longer each for themselves, but as suspended or moments.
This unity is existence.
Existence is
1. a being, in whose concept the non-existence of its as relationship
with others or being for others; 2. but, after the moments of being, it
has the side, not relationship to be different, but to be in
itself.
As the concept that embraces these two provisions, it is the
reality.
The real or something is considered to be different from other real at first indifferent to the same, by being at the same time in its otherness in itself.
The difference of such is first of all in the border as the centre between them, in which they are as much as they are not.
You are
1. different from the border or from their difference, which their The
centre is outside which they are something.
. the border belongs to them themselves, because it is their border.
The diversity is therefore
1. own diversity of the real or its determination.
But this determination in itself is also
2. external existence or condition.
The determination, which is both external and internal, makes the quality.
c. Change
§ 22
The nature or the external existence belongs both to the something on, than it is foreign to him or his otherness is hereby his non-being.
It is thus the inequality of himself with himself, whereby the change is set.
In that change is the negation of the negative, which is the something on him, the forethought has come into being.
Or the determination, as the inner difference, which is the something to itself, is the relationship of the something in its difference only to itself, or it’s for itself.
B. Quantity
a. Foresight (ideality)
§ 24
Being for oneself is
1. the difference, but only of themselves, or the relationship, not to
another, but to themselves.
2. but in so far as the difference contains otherness in itself and
relationship is negative, is other for it, but as excluded.
The farsighted is the numerical one.
It is simple, related only to itself, and the other of it excluded.
His otherness is the multiplicity.
The many are all the same.
They are therefore one.
But the One is just as much the multitude.
For to exclude it is to set its opposite, or it sets itself thereby as a multiplicity. That becoming is the attraction, that the repulsion.
By setting one becoming as much as the other, their truth is the calm, which is just as much the out-of-sightness of the One or its sitting as a multiplicity, discretion, like the self-equal relationship of the many or their continuity is pure quantity.
b. Quantum
§ 28
Quantity has the negativity of the One only as annulled in it or because in the self-sameness of being for oneself, being different is immediately no other than an external border, or as a border that is not a border.
The quantity with this indifferent limit is quantum.
The quantum is extensive quantum in that the limit is the moment the multiplicity of quantity, or intensive quantum, in so far as they refer to the moment of Self-sameness related or in the determination of self-sufficiency.
Since the negativity as an indifferent limit is at the quantum, then being forsaken or absolute destiny is a hereafter for the same.
Beyond each quantum can go beyond and set a different limit will be, which is no more than an immanent border.
This results in the progress into infinity or the bad Infinity.
The absolute destiny, which was set as a hereafter, but is as being for oneself its own moment of quantity.
Or the limit, which is not a limit, is nothing other than that in Otherness abolished for oneself.
It is determination, the setting of which is self-determination; qualitative size.
C. Infinity
§ 32
As a simple determination, the qualitative parameter is first specific size, as a different self-determination but a specification of sizes, which are at the same time certain sizes against each other and a qualitative have a relationship with each other or their quotient their ratio and as qualitative to each other is more restrained.
Since the sizes are not only finite here, but set their suspension themselves as their qualitative law is, this is their true, present infinity.
II. Being
A. Concept of being
§ 33
The simple penetration of the quantitative or external Destination and the own inner determination is the essence.
As a penetration of self-determination and the indifferent Determination it has the moments of materiality and immateriality in itself.
The essential is that of the self-determination members, the insignificant but the moment of indifferent existence.
Becoming, as becoming of the being, is first of all doing, a passing over of the same into the freedom of existence, but which is a is to stay within oneself.
Insofar as doing is a difference of the being from itself and existence or certainty is brought about by it, the action is Set.
B. Sentence
The sentence contains the moments of introspection or self-sameness and pure discrimination.
That would be pure matter, that would be pure form.
The pure form, however, is the action that remains in itself, i.e. the same Self-similarity, which was called pure matter, as these, in turn, are the opposite of the indiscriminate exclusion of each other and of the pure form is not distinguished.
But the difference must be made just as much, and the unity of form and self-similarity is in contrast against being inward, in the form of external existence, that which is usually called matter will be.
Insofar as it is in the form of the inner being, it is content, but the form is each of these provisions of diversity.
) The simple proposition is the proposition of identity , a = a.
It is indifferent to its matter.
Its content has no purpose, or it has no content, and the form is thus the indiscriminate self-sameness.
§ 39
)The proposition of indifferent difference sets the indefinite
Difference in general and says that there are not two things which can
perfectly complement each other are the same.
§ 40
The sentence of the opposition is: a is either b or -b, positivity and
negativity.
Of the opposite predicates, only one of them applies to things, and there is no third party between them.
§ 41
The sentence of the reason expresses the return of the law in itself
from or the setting itself as the third in which the opposing provisions
are repealed and which, as the simple, which is the reasoned, as the
existence, is the opposite of its purpose.
C. Reason and justification
1. whole and parts
§ 42
The being as the reason for its existence, without which the being itself cannot is first of all whole and parts.
The whole is the setting of its parts and, conversely, consists of them.
Both sides make up one and the same thing.
The whole is only available to the parts as their combination, i.e. the whole in a moment, and the parts are equal to him as divided, i.e. as sharing; or both sides are indifferent to each other, and the activity of the whole as form has made matter into condition.
2. power and its utterance
§ 43
But the parts are only parts as set by the whole.
Their relationship is the determination through the unity of the reason.
Or the quality of existence is determined by the activity of the reason as of the form, and the matter of the appearance is its own content.
It is therefore power that expresses itself.
The power is the self-setting of its existence as a certain quality.
After the side that existence still is being-for-other or outwardness is, it is at the same time free of the same and does not stop by Appearance disappears.
After this side, it no longer has matter as a condition, which is its content and of which it is an immanent part, but still another activity that sollicates them.
The solliciting activity is itself a force and must be added to it, to be sollicised, to be sollicised.
As the relationship of both activities to each other makes this mutual exchange of their provisions, each is the reason for the activity or statement of the other.
Thus the concept of reason has been created, which is the reason for its is this exciting activity for oneself and others.
3. inside and outside
§ 46
The being is reason for its existence as a self-exciting activity, and there is nothing foreign in its existence or nothing that is not would have set the ground itself.
The being and its existence are thus the same.
That one behaves as inside to itself as outside, which only representation of the interior is.
The reason, as this relationship, is the unconditional, the inner, the unity of matter as the resting self-sameness and the Form as the unity of opposites.
It presents itself in its existence as matter, in which its forces rest, and as a contrast and game of exciting and opposing active forces.
The being has thus become reality.
III. Reality
§ 48
Reality is the independent relationship.
It has the moments of its appearance or existence, which the relationship to himself, and their possibility as the view or essence of their existence.
The real itself is the unity of its possibility and its Existence.
1. substance
§ 49
The real thing is substance.
It is being, which is the determination of its existence as simple contains attributes and laws in itself and sets them as his own game or as his commercial work, whose removal does not mean the disappearance of the substance, but its Returning to oneself is.
The substance is the necessity of their commercial work.
These have in their free existence the relationship of their nature to a Other than an inner, hidden part of them and seem to have lost their independence by external coincidence and to lose foreign power, but which is in reality only the restoration of the whole, which takes back into itself the secretion made on them.
2. cause
§ 51
The substance enters into the relationship of causality insofar as it in the contrast of necessity.
The free acting absolute cause is the substance not only as the Moving, whose activity begins within itself, but which also has all the content within itself that it produces and which receives existence as effect.
This activity is therefore, after the contrast between the activity and the Effect, transition to the opposite, but according to the content an identical transition.
3. interaction
§ 53
The substance is therefore only active on and in itself as a cause and only interacts with itself, or it is the general
Second section: Subjective logic
I. Concept
§ 54
The concept is the whole of the provisions, summarised in their simple unit.
He has taken the moments of generality, specificity and detail.
The generality is its inherent unity in the provision.
The special feature is the negative as a simple determination, which is generality is permeated, or it is a characteristic.
The detail is the negative as a purely related negativity.
The detail has to be regarded as the indeterminate Negativity the provision as indifferent, but not an independent, but suspended existence on it as Property and is subject.
II. Judgment
§ 58
The judgement is the separation of the subject from its destiny or Special feature and the relationship of the same to them, which is his predicate.
Subject and predicate behave as individual and special or General or also as special and general to each other.
At the same time, the judgment expands the subject to the general public and sets at the same time its barriers.
The predicate thus simultaneously goes beyond the subject, and at the same time it is contained in the subject, or the predicate is both special and general.
a. Quality of the judgment or determination of the predicate
§ 60
As the judgement is the relation of the predicate to the subject, so is 1. its content and expression first of all this: the individual is general; positive judgement. -
but the individual is not general - negative judgement - but Special. -
the individual is not special - infinite judgement -, which means that all provisions, including the general sphere, thus is repealed at all.
b. Quantity of the judgment or determination of the subject
§ 61
The infinite judgment contains the individual as a single or this, and it arises
- the judgment “This is so”; singular judgment -
- Since the predicate also refers to the subject in a general way, it
is the judgment must be as follows: “Some things are so”; particular
judgment, in which the judgment to the contrary is directly applicable:
“Some things are not so”. -
- This uncertainty is cancelled out by the judgment: “Everything is so procure”; universal judgment.
c. Relation of the judgment or determination of the relationship
§ 62
Through qualitative and quantitative judgement, both subject and predicate in all provisions of the term, the term as such exists, and the judgment now contains a relationship of the existing to the concept.
This actual judgment is
1. categorical.
But because that relationship of the concept to existence is only is an internal connection, the categorical judgement is at the same time only assertory.
§ 63
2. the hypothetical judgment, “if a is, so is b”, pronounces the context
as such, i.e. without insurance or Assertion of existence, which makes
it problematic.
- the disjunctive judgment, “a is either b or c or d contains in the predicate the generality and the specificity of it.
The subject is as much sensitive to these provisions as it is to the general related, as these are also mutually exclusive and only one of them is available to the subject can come to us.
This judgment is apodictic.
III. Syllogism
§ 65
The syllogism is the representation of the concept in its moments.
Detail, specificity and generality are both important and moments, as well as the extremes through the centre, which is their unity, have joined forces.
The syllogism is
1. first of all, the union of the individual and the general due to its
special feature as the centre.
The sense of this syllogism is:
) the individual is by its specificity a general or has Existence in
general;
the individual still has, by its direct determination, a another
determination, which includes those within itself.
The form of this syllogism, E - B - A , is the general rule of subsumption of a particular content under a general provision.
If these, as in identical sentences, are not in accordance with the content is more general than the one from which it is directly predicated it has the form of the general public as a predicate against the other as a subject.
In quantitative terms, the moments of syllogism have no relationship of form to each other, but that of equality.
The mathematical syllogism is therefore called:
What is equal to a third person is equal among themselves.
The syllogisms, whatever their position, the moments they contain may have, are to be returned to the above form, which is the general is the rule of all syllogisms.
In the end, viewed according to its specific moments, the centre is the Special feature, a determination, the majority of which is concretely defined by the individual contains, which is therefore also combined with other general provisions can be achieved, which can limit and cancel each other out.
- Similarly, the specificity of other general provisions ready to move in.
Conversely, the general includes other determinants and thus also other details in themselves.
Consequently, here the combined individual and general are a random content for each other.
In view of the relationship between the moments, the conclusion contains two direct relations or judgements, namely that of the individual to the particular and that of the particular to the general, and a mediated relationship: the final sentence.
Because only the mediated relationship can guarantee the unity of the thus contains, in form, the necessity of their relationship, the two direct relations must also be regarded as switchboards can be displayed.
But if this is done by the same kind of syllogism, the Progress into bad infinity, in that each such inserted syllogism has the same defect.
The direct relationship of the individual to the special and of the
particular to the general must therefore first be assessed according to
the general form of the syllogism at all, but are conveyed by a
different determination of the centre.
2 The second general syllogism is therefore that the particular is
connected with the general by the detail will be merged.
- The individual, however, must exist as a being, insofar as it is the
centre is supposed to be allness: Conclusion by induction.
Induction can, because the existing individual of free randomness will not be complete, and this conclusion therefore remains imperfect in so far as it does not contain any internal necessity.
But the detail as the centre, insofar as it is the general moment of the concept is, brings together the particular and the general in a true way.
It is the negative unity, in which as becoming and activity the specificity as a differentiated diversity and condition of the Existence summarised in one and raised to a simple general unit or vice versa the general is isolated and integrated into the diversity of the existence has come into being.
§ 74
3. finally, the relationship of the detail to the specific can be
mediated, what the general is for:
End of the analogy.
In this conclusion, the middle has the centre against the extreme of the particular Determination of the detail and disintegrates into the individual and the general, since what can only be derived from individual applies, in general terms.
This conclusion therefore actually contains four provisions (quaternio terminorum) and is therefore defective.
But the general public as a true centre is the inner nature and whole concept, in which the negative unit, subjectivity and objectivity, the content and the specificity of existence are penetrate and which are the absolute reason and connection of the self and the Existence is.
The first conclusion, E - B - A, the mediation of the detail and Generality through specificity, sets the following two, by which its two immediate relationships are mediated, in advance.
Conversely, however, these two presuppose each other and also the first ahead.
The immediate calls for mediation and only emerges from it, just as, conversely, mediation emerges from the immediate.
Those syllogisms form a circle of mutual preconditions, who as a whole binds himself to himself and in the simple mediation, which is just as immediate, to be is summarised in the centre point.
All of this is a mutually supportive mediation, which is simple immediacy, brings forth an existence which is the cause and its activity has its prerequisite, but vice versa, what has been produced is just as much the reason for the activity and the production itself.
This mediation is therefore neither a passing over nor the becoming of being at all, in which the transitory is lost in its opposite; nor is it an emergence like the appearance of the ground, which only is immediate, or the expression of the force whose activity is conditional; nor an action such as that of the cause, whose action is in effect disappears.
A.
The purpose, looked at more closely, is the real and self-realising term, as a whole as in its parts, the whole end.
It is first of all, as the subjective, the whole syllogism, namely
- the immediate, self-contained general which
- self-determined or special and
- drives himself to go out of sight, to exist.
B.
The realization of the purpose is also the whole conclusion.
This mediation is 1. active purpose as the acting cause, but 2. by a means which belongs in part to the subjective, from activity is associated with the purpose, and objectivity, and is not dependent on the activity is associated with this objectivity; 3. the activity affects the immediate existence and gives itself a mediated one by its cancellation, objectivity.
C.
This, the fulfilled purpose, represents the mediation by the General represented.
It is an external appearance, which on the one hand is a product and on the other hand a reason for of the production.
In the same, what is at work has become just as much out of control and into its opposite, as it has also returned to itself from the mediating activity and in his otherness has found only himself.
Insofar as the end as active cause means and product in existence fall apart, the means therefore does not fulfil the end, the product does not fulfil the activity on it himself, the usefulness is merely an external one, and relative in general, inasmuch as the purpose itself depends on subordinate content is and that which is means for him, only after some side this relationship to him.
The purpose of the existing is what it is in itself and is truth or its concept.
The relative expediency, which is only any certainty of the same, does not therefore exhaust its concept.
The inner purpose is that something in itself is mutually as well as end as means, is his own product and this product is the producer itself.
This is an end in itself.
Third section - Theory of ideas
§ 84
The idea is the adequate term, in which objectivity and subjectivity is equal or that existence corresponds to the concept as such.
It embraces the true life of the self.
The idea is part life, part cognition, part science.
I. Idea of life
§ 85
Life is the idea in the elements of existence.
Through the unity of the concept and objectivity, the living such a whole, in which the parts have nothing in themselves, but only through the whole and in are whole, organic parts, where matter and form are inseparable.
Life has the general moments in him, which are just as much
constitute general organic systems:
1. its general simple being in itself in its Exteriority,
sensitivity;
2. external irritability and immediate reaction against it,
irritability;
3. return of this effect to the outside in itself, reproduction.
As a realising self-movement, life is the threefold process:
1. The shaping of the individual within himself, 2. its
self-preservation against its inorganic nature, 3. the conservation of
the genus.
- the process of design is the relationship of the organic to itself itself and consists in the fact that all organic parts are mutually produce continuously and the conservation of one depends on the conservation of the others.
This production is in part only an evolution of the existing organisation, on the other hand, the continuous change of the same.
But that mere growth or quantitative change is Reproduction process through intussusception, not by juxtaposition, i.e. not by mechanical propagation.
The process of organic change is also not a chemical process. process.
In chemism, the materials that interact with each other are are related to each other by their concept (chemical relationship) and therefore contain their product, which is not already represented by what is already there, which is is generated.
But its production is not self-preservation.
It is therefore only a neutral product, i.e. in which the activity which is only due to the separated matters, extinct, not self-producing, and again into its components, quality and quantity, is separable.
The organic food process, on the other hand, is a perfect determination of material reproduction by the internal already existing form, which as the subjective or as the simple form of all the parts oneself or any other part of it behaves against the other parts as against a lens, and is only in the process with itself.
- the self-preservation process of the organic against its inorganic Nature.
- The free opposition of life in subjective and objective presents itself as organic and inorganic nature.
The latter is life without individuality, in which the individual for itself exists, its concept only as a law of natural necessity, not in subjective form on him has and its meaning only falls into the whole.
This whole, as subject, is the organic, to which the inorganic nature essentially refers and whose condition.
The inorganic condition does not behave against the organic as cause or as a chemical moment, but rather what in the organic world is caused by the effect of the inorganic is set, is essentially determined by the organic itself and acts only as arousing.
The organic is the double movement of the ongoing struggle, which, on the one hand, is the elementary becoming and the passing over into the opposite direction, abolishes its condition and the objective generality individualised, but on the other hand the individual or subjective in itself dissolves itself and reduces to inorganic existence.
- the process of conservation of the genus is
(a) the realisation of the genus in general, which, as a general life, is made possible by the special nature of the species reality in detail, to individuality,
(b) the relationship between the organic and the organic equivalent, which makes it appear as another individual of the same species produced, which is reflected in this change of individuals and the decline in detail to the general public.
II. Idea of recognition
§ 94
A judgment is the representation of an object according to its the present provisions, as the same are concerned in the unity of its concept and are result or, conversely, in so far as the effectiveness of the term itself provisions.
These provisions, as set out in the term, are the recognition of or the idea realised in the elements of thought.
III Absolute idea or knowledge
§ 95
The absolute knowledge has
1. nothing external, in any way given to his objects, but only
themselves.
It is the concept existing as a term.
2. The concept constructs itself from itself by being called becoming is
and the contradiction contained in it in the form of different,
independently existing real or intellectual provisions.
3. by first of all reflecting on the real determinations in their will
become the rules of reason, their dialectic not only presents them as
essential but also in their unity.
This negative movement is the source of their positive unity, which constitutes the concept in its real totality.
Part Two: Science of Nature
§ 96
Nature is the absolute idea in the form of otherness at all, the indifferent, external representational and the concrete, individualised realisation of their moments, - or the absolute essence in the determination of immediacy against his mediation in the first place.
The becoming of nature is the becoming of spirit.
Nature is to be regarded as a system of stages, one of which consists of the others is necessary, but not in such a way that one is naturally produced by the other will be, but in the inner idea underlying nature.
The movement of the idea of nature is, from its immediacy in itself to go, to lift oneself up and become the spirit.
The natural science considers
- the ideal existence of nature as space and time in general
- the inorganic,
- organic nature
and is therefore
- mathematics,
- physics of the inorganic,
- the science of organic nature.
First Section - Mathematics
§ 99
Space and time are the existing abstractions, or pure form, pure View of nature, - the space of the existing thought of the general indifferent Diversity in general, the time of the existing thought of the negative unity or the pure Becoming.
Space and time are infinite, i.e. in the abstract continuity of Boundless out of sight.
As ideas, however, they have determinations within themselves which Representing a concept in its moments: the dimensions.
§ 101
1. the dimensions of space are moments of it that are not are outside
each other, but where there is one, there is also each of the
others.
They are also the formal differences, one, the other and the third as a unit of the same.
But for the sake of the quality-less unity of space they are not determined against each other, but empty differences, which can only be The object is given a definiteness that is foreign to them.
- the dimensions of time are
- the past, existence as suspended, as non-existent
- the future, the non-existence, but definitely being there,
- the present as the immediate becoming and the unification of both.
Because space is involved in the determination of a real, indifferent existence is, real borders also appear on it, and its dimensions, which at first are merely directions in general, are the forms of this limitation.
The limitation of space is only affected by the indifferent provision of the Quantity to.
The continuous quantity, which initially determines the nature of its quantity is itself an indefinite provision.
The absolute determination lies in the discrete quantity, whose principle which is One.
Space is the object of a (synthetic) science that geometry, because in it the continuous quantum is schematised as such, i.e. can present it clearly and because in it, as the element of the indifferent, outside of each other This is a diversity that is at the same time continuous, the concept of an object expresses itself in real form, which contains more in itself than the essential definition.
Time as such, however, is not capable of providing a complete scheme or To be a figure of the quantum.
As the restless becoming is not an element for synthetic Whole.
By becoming a quantity, it goes into the negative Quantity determination, into the One, which is the principle for an (analytical) science of the quantum, the Arithmetic, is, because the connection of the One does not have its own elementary view of reality, but is of the kind that it is set.
In arithmetic and geometry, the Quanta are combined compared, which, as arbitrary and general as its size may be, but according to this their destiny, which is theirs, in so far as they are not in proportion to the fact that they are perfect or certain Quanta, are considered to be finite sizes.
The analysis of infinity, but especially the differential and Integral calculus considers infinite quantities, i.e. those which no longer have the meaning of finite or per se have perfectly defined sizes, but vanishing sizes, which in their last conditions or at their limit, i.e. have their value purely in the circumstances.
The differential calculus finds for a formula the expression of the last ratio of their variable, finite sizes.
The integral calculus looks the other way round for formulas, which are last relationships, the finite expression.
Applied mathematics applies pure mathematics to of nature, which it takes up from experience.
Second section: Physics
I. Mechanics
§ 110
The pure view, from its immediacy into being and for being or the fulfilled space and time is matter. The The other side of space and the inward appearance of time, absolutely in one set, gives the concept of matter in general.
After the moment of being in itself, matter would be a singular point; after the moment of being out of itself, it would initially be a quantity of itself excluding atoms. But by excluding each other through the the atom has no reality, and the atom has no reality and the atom has no reality Atomistic as well as the absolute continuity or the infinite Divisibility is only one possibility in it.
Matter has a moment of isolation as being in itself, but the same way it is preserved in its appearance and is only a essential continuity, the severity which is the general predicate of body, which is matter in the form of the subject.
The body contains the relationship between the ideal moments of space and time, which relationship as movement and the heaviness as its reason appears.
The free movement comes to the bodies, which have their own centre have heaviness in them. The relationship of such centres creates the free system of the orbital motion of the celestial bodies, whereas the other bodies without their own centre lack centrifugal force and the centripetal force, causing them to fall.
In the magnitude of motion, apart from space and time, mass is a moment, as well as space and time come into force and, like the masses, moments of power.
II. physics of the inorganic
§ 116
Individualised by the light and divided into qualitative differences the gravity of the problem to be addressed is of a concrete or physical nature and object of physics in general.
The heaviness is the contrast of the only striving for self Being out of sight. Matter is this existence of striving, whose contrast expresses itself only in the moments of space and time in a merely ideal centre. That becoming of the out of sight becomes Being in oneself, the intense simple unity of heaviness, is one of its existence, the free existing self of matter, the free existing self of matter, the light. Light, as the self-same self, is the principle the individualisation and specialisation of the material. His relationship to that to him only negatives, to the dark, makes the colour.
The first moment of the special existence of the physical nature is the magnetism, the direction of the individual unit point in the Opposite, but still included in the term.
The second moment is the realisation, namely the release and own
constitution of the sides of the opposition:
1. as electricity, which is the still unembodied, in absolute tension
against each other, is a fleeting appearance of the same.
2. the elementary chemical substances. They are the qualitative
differences in physicality, in shape of its own matter, which however is
still abstract and without real are individuality.
3. the physical bodies, in which the qualitative determinations in of
concrete physicality, which, although this means that all moments of
physicality within itself, but under the provision of a of these moments
or qualities, and the shape of the indifferent existing against each
other:
(a) as physical elements,
(b) as absolute or celestial bodies and
(c) as those which have been transferred to further distribution and
separation earthly body.
The third moment is the chemical process. The separation and the own indifferent existence for oneself the body is at the same time a Relationship between them, not just mutual tension, but also a confrontation with and commitment to the activity and influence, whereby their indifferent existence is cancelled out and incorporated into the unit of totality. This process of decline but falls in the living nature with the process of construction together, which makes the union from another side at the same time a excretion and a deposit of an indifferent existence.
Third Section: Physics of the Organic
§ 121
Geology regards the formations of the earth as a result of the of the formation of the earth individual. The geognosy considers these formations in their generality as mountain species according to their nature, the conditions of their storage and makes with Oryctognosy, which primarily uses the individual structures as components of the of those general and gaits considered mineralogy.
Vegetable nature is the beginning of the individual or subjective self-preservation or actual organic process, the but not yet the full force of individual unity in that the plant, which is an individual, has only those parts which are who can again be regarded as independent individuals. For the sake of this lack of inner unity, she does not reach feeling. Plant physiology considers its general nature, the botany, but the system of the same, which mainly defines its classification is based on the differences between the fertilisation organs, which is the highest peak of vegetable life, which means that the plants are adjoin a higher level of the organism.
Animal nature possesses that subjective unity which makes all organic parts are subject to a whole that is one. The physiology of the animal organism considers the functions of the parts which contribute to the continuing production of the whole and are also created and maintained by this process. - The comparative anatomy considers the general type of animal in the different forms of the general genus, partly like the same one in the simplest animal organisations begin to show themselves and gradually emerges more developed, in part as it becomes different elements in which animal sexes emerge, are able to develop modified. Zoology first classifies them according to their Community key characteristics and removes the provision on this from Main stages of development of the animal type, from the element and then from the weapons in relation to others, although nature the certain limits, which are presented here first, by Transitions that unite one principle with another are blurred.
After the moment of its irritability, the organism is at all in relationship to its inorganic nature. This separation is first subjective in itself as a feeling of lack, as a need available. This subjective separation is reflected outwards to the Contrast of organic and inorganic nature. The inorganic Potencies behave as arousing to the organism, and its activity is the constant struggle to find its receptiveness in itself, to but to overwhelm it and thus to strengthen the unity in itself which even such a course of the contrast between the of the internal systems against each other and a restoration of these is.
The organism is in the state of disease when an in potency cannot be overwhelmed by him, to be in a system, which is thus isolated, in its own right, in its activity and no longer into the liquid activity of the whole and thus the organic process to an interrupted process in general makes. The science of disease and its cure is the medicine.
The animal has feeling, insofar as its organic moments are par excellence in the unity of life alone have their purpose and meaning, but at the same time they also have an outward outwardness. The last Reflection of this outward appearance into the abstract element of simplicity, which alone constitutes the complete existence of the moments, is the Elevation to the spirit.
Part Three: Science of the Mind/Spirit
§ 127
The mind only starts from the external, determines this and behaves furthermore, only to himself and to his own provisions.
The philosophy of mind contains three sections. It considers
1. the mind in its concept, psychology in general
2. the realisation of the spirit,
3. the perfection of the spirit in art, religion and science
First section - The spirit in its concept
§ 129
The mind in itself is
1. in its natural existence and its direct connection with the organic
body and its resulting dependence on to understand its affections and
states; anthropology.
2. as appearing, inasmuch as, as a subject, he is in fact object, the
mind is consciousness and the object of the Phenomenology of the
mind.
3. as spirit according to the provisions of its activity within its
itself it is the subject of psychology.
Intelligence starts from the outward appearance as its condition, but
as its principle, which it is itself. Intelligence is
1. directly as a feeling, the content of which they
2. raises to imagination and
3. as thinking the content from randomness to necessity and specificity
to the generality of its provisions.
I. The feeling
§ 131
The feeling is the simple, yet specific affection of the individual subject, in which no difference of the same and the content is set, or one as in the subject that has not yet separated has] from the object, set destination. [§ 132
The feeling is partly internal, partly external and is immediate, still without reflection, as mood a pleasant or unpleasant one.
II. The performance
§ 133
The feeling is the original, still wrapped up fabric, the elevates intelligence to the level of imagination by simplicity that eliminates the feeling of having to put the same thing into a lens and into a separate subjective, the feeling of being a felt one.
Only in the imagination do you have an object. The steps of the
Imagine that the intelligence
1. remembers, by remembering the content of the feeling at all
loosens,
2. imagines this content, keeps it without its object, keeps it free is
created and linked from itself,
3. that it deprives him of his immediate importance and gives him
another meaning and connection in memory.
A. Remembering
§ 135
1. view is the immediate idea in which the Emotional determinations
concerning an object separated from the subject which is free from the
individual subject and at the same time is the same. But just as much it
is not for it as an individual, but for all.
The object is, so set as apart from the subject and on itself as one another, partly the quiet coexistence of the room, partly the restless becoming in the succession of time. Space and time are abstract viewing or the general forms of viewing.
In these general objective elements, the object, in addition to it has the content of the emotional provisions, at the same time a single, in space and time completely determined, with other objects before, beside and after [him] coherent.
(The things by this determination in time and space and by each other according to their regulations are caught and in general dungeons).
§ 138
2.performance.
The feeling becomes objective in perception. The subject is submerged in
it in direct relation to it, so that it actually, in looking at it, no
other than that objective, spatial and temporal being. The voluntary
activity of intelligence here is the attention to the manifold existence
of the Present and in the arbitrariness of dwelling on one content or to
move on to another; capacity.
But as an object, the view is at the same time for the subject. This the latter than the one in and for itself takes itself out of its out of sight, reflects within itself and separates itself from the Objectivity, by making the view subjective to the picture.
The view, into which the ego is placed, is not only a picture, but is imagination at all. It does not stop at the fact that the inside the recorded view is completely identical to the direct view but is rather influenced by its context in space and time. freed and removed. It is an annulled, i.e. just as non-existence as preserved existence.
The view is as a conception the own time and space of the subject, placed in time and space as general forms. By abolishing the special time of viewing it becomes permanent; through that of its particular space it is everywhere.
It also presents the concrete view in its various provisions or stored in their unit, but also from the bonds of their Detail liberates. The partial provisions fall apart and are to abstractions, which are in themselves without the sensual context, in to which they first appeared to the subject will be.
§ 143
3. memory.
The performance as the remembered or the general view is related to the
direct view as permanent and general to the individual. Memory is not
both a comparison of two individual views, and that the present
individual view is subordinate to the already generalised or the
performance is subsumed. The same thing that I recognise is on the one
hand the identity of its content, on the other hand I recognise in the
the identity of myself with myself or remember the identity of myself
with me in her.
The image or the imagination does not become general, that the same view would be repeated more often and these several Views into a picture that would be more or less abstract, either more consciously or in such a way that at each of the previous one, but rather the individual view of the By taking it up, contemplation immediately takes on the form the general public. It is therefore a subsumption. In memory through a current view or imagination the image of a which was the same as the present one. That previous one is the permanent and general one, under which I which now subsumes the present individual.
B. Imagination
§ 145
In the memory the idea of the former view and the present one directly into the other. I do not have two things in front of me, and the imagination, but only that I have already that it is already mine; inasmuch as I now also have the different from the view I have before me, this is the most the imagination. In this respect, however, view and imagination can also must be completely different.
- reproduction of the performance in general. The imagination as Reproduction of the performance in general calls up the images and ideas without the current view that corresponds to them, and lets them come into consciousness for themselves.
- the imagination brings the preserved pictures and ideas in various contexts with each other, which can be is different from the one they had in mind.
This link can be established according to a number of provisions which ideas are contained, happen. The different ways of linking have very improperly been called laws of association of ideas.
The determination of the link can be a more or less be superficial or in-depth context: mere Simultaneity or the same place of two performances, - or any similarity, also contrast of the same, relationship as a whole and parts, cause and effect, reason and consequence etc., in general any kind sensual or spiritual relationship. This relationship is mainly under the rule of an interest of the mind, an passion, or the spiritual character in general.
The difference between the pictures and the views is in the past is given. The ordinary consciousness makes him directly in the awake and healthy condition. But in sleep, in extraordinary states, in sickness, this difference disappears for the same, and the Imagination dominates it against opinion and against higher mental powers.
§ 151
) The dreaming.
In dream sleep, we are confronted with series of ideas, which we do not
distinguish from views which are transmitted by memories or are caused
by current feelings, but by the way mixed and linked together in the
most random and arbitrary way will be. - The premonitions, visions,
enthusiasm, etc. are indeed deeper interests or forces than the mere
imagination, but they are linked to a particular increase of the same,
which turns inner, darker feelings into images and gives them the
strength of views.
Sympathy with nature. So-called foresight. In reality the future sleeps. Reality is also the possibility of the The following. oracle, prophecy from the flight of birds, the bowels of animals. General mood through nature, how the animals cope with earthquakes anticipate. People who live more in harmony with nature, have a stronger connection with it than we, who are nature have torn us away. - Inner light; dealing with higher ghosts; witch ointment from Hyoscyamus; the witches anaesthetised themselves and fell into a terrible fantasy which became epidemic. You have been burned in their thousands. - Ghosts; often external Apparitions as an occasion that captures the imagination. The evil Conscience, tortured by the torment of crime, makes its way through ghostly figures objectively. - Dates, in life after death to appear. - Enthusiasm; fanaticism, religious ideas higher than all morals in life and as conceptual relationships. The rapture falls into a delusion, an imageless To imitate the physical outward appearance. The sensual should be higher than the spiritual. The absolute is to be Lay out the outward appearance. In things one wants to see God without art; or one wants to see the absolute being for inner contemplation before the Bring imagination; you want to bring God into the temporal, sensual. - The true supremacy of the imagination over the view of the will, e.g. Mucius Scaevola)
§ 152
A higher degree of life included in the fantasy is somnambulism, the
actual nightwalking, or other conditions of this kind, in which in the
case of weaker or stronger external sensation the mind has a more inner
view of the outer, even in the is active and to whole series of external
activities, such as does it while awake, goes away.
(Somnambulism is ) the most common thing in sleep: listening to music, reading, writing letters, speaking, going to dangerous places. Water tubs in front of the bed; strong vibrations; ) the epileptic; due to fingers, reading on the stomach etc.; ) the magnetic; the sick answers only to the one who is in report with him).
§ 153
e) Madness also has that fantasizing in the fever heat is a similar,
disease-dependent condition, very different modifications like
foolishness, madness, frenzy etc. and is in the awake state there is a
predominance of fantasy ideas about the views and understandable ideas.
Folly has some single, fixed idea that is crazy, and is filled with
Correctness of the other performances in the fixed performance
connected. Insanity is a general destruction of the spiritual Nature. As
frenzy or madness this madness is connected with evil malicious will and
raging outbursts.
The imagination, a king, cardinal, a person in the deity to be. Melancholy from the idea of moral unworthiness. It believed someone, when he pisses, to flood an entire city; another, he was a grain of barley, and the chickens would eat him; a third, He has feet of glass, a bell in his belly, etc. - The causes are (a) physical; often natural, inherited disposition; impressions at the time pregnancy; debauchery; poisonous herbs; rabies in dogs; Disease matter that affects the nerves, the brain, etc; (b) mentally; a very vivid imagination, e.g. people are confronted with joy not only died but also went insane; disruption through passions, love, pride, hope, vanity, deception; mistrust tears apart the connection with the outside world; his life in to bury oneself in it, in its detail, etc. - The healing method of Soul disorders are therefore also physical and mental).
§ 154
3. productive imagination. The higher power of imagination, the poetic
imagination, is not at the service of random states and of the mind, but
in the service of ideas and truth of the mind in general. It touches the
random and arbitrary circumstances of existence, highlights the inner
and essential aspects of it and visualises it. - This form of the
appearing The existence she gives him is only supported by the
essential, dominated, penetrated and connected to form a unity. - The
symbolisation of the imagination consists in the fact that they are
sensual phenomena or pictures underlays ideas or thoughts of a different
kind than they directly, but which have an analogous relationship with
them and represent those images as the expression of the same.
(Poetry is not imitation of nature. Poetry is in higher senses as the common reality. The poet is a deep Spirit that sees through the substance that another also has in him, but which does not come to his consciousness. It is also true here that for the valet does not give heroes. They say: I have this one too but saw nothing of it; or: I have also known love, but have not but found nothing in her of what the poet had said about it says. That is why the poet is a seer. - The splendour of nature unites of the poets to a whole as an attribute of some higher being: Ether Blue is his garment, flowers his messengers, etc. - Ceres and Proserpina. Base the idea. - Summer: Forget-me-not. - Sunrise: “So quoll the a hero dies.” - Symbolism of bread and wine in the Eleusinian mysteries and in Christianity. - A deep mind symbolises in general; inclination of the Germans to the thought poetry of nature etc.)
C. The memory
§ 155
1. the sign in general.
In that the idea of the external Being liberated and made subjective is
the same and the inner Imagination confronted each other as different.
The arbitrary connection of an external existence with an existence that
is not but also according to the content, which differs from this idea,
so that that is the idea or meaning of that makes the same a sign.
Productive memory thus brings about the linking of the view and idea, but a free link, in which the previous The relationship in which the idea is based on the view is reversed. In the connection of productive memory sensual existence has no value in and of itself, but only that, which the spirit gives him.
Sensual existence refers by its provisions to other existence. But by using productive memory to create the definition of its purpose, it will therefore essential to the relationship of ideas to other imaginative essence, and it is here that the theoretical communication of this against each other.
§ 158
2. the language.
The highest work of productive memory is Language, which is partly sound
and partly written language. In that the productive memory or the
mnemosyne is the origin of it, then can only be derived from a further
origin in consideration of the invention of certain signs.
The sound is the fleeting appearance of an inwardness that is utterance does not remain an external, but is a subjective one, reveals an inner life that means something. - It is important that the articulation of the tones not only leads to a images in their determinations, but also abstract ideas can be designated. - The concrete idea is generally described by the word mark into something figurative, which is related to the sign identified.
(The image is killed, and the word represents the image. This is a Leo; the name applies to the item. - Logos; God spoke etc. - The Language is the highest power among human beings. - Adam, they say, was all things (animals) have their name. - Language is killing the sensual world in its immediate existence, the suspension of to an existence, which is a call that can be heard in all imaginary beings).
In view of the invention of certain signs, it is natural that to sound signs for sounding phenomena (hissing, buzzing, sounding, and so on) are made in direct imitations of them. - For other sensual objects or changes is the sign at all arbitrary. For the description of abstract relations and provisions, the main focus is on symbolisation, and the further Language training belongs to the power of the general public, the Understanding on.
The written language is hieroglyphic or alphabetical. The hieroglyphic is a designation for objects that do not have relationship to their sounding sign. - A general philosophical written language, several of which have grasped the idea, is opposed by the indeterminably large number of signs which would be necessary, especially to invent and learn. - The alphabetical written language dissolves the word signs into their simple tones and designates the same.
§ 162
3. reproductive memory.
It is the retention of the individual characters in relation to what is
designated and, in particular, the holding of the same, which are
neither pictorial nor intelligible but in a completely new context. are
the result of arbitrary or coincidental events and by mere internal
independent force are thus held together.
III. the thinking
§ 163
Thinking is the activity of the mind in its independent, self-contained even balance simplicity, which in and of itself is provisions which sets the character of self-sameness and generality have.
A. Mind (“Verstand”)
§ 164
The mind is the thinking determining at all and the holding in envisaged provisions. As an objective mind it contains the categories, the thinking determinations of being, which are the inner unity of the diversity of views and ideas. He distinguishes the essential from the unessential and recognises the Necessity and laws of things.
B. Judgments
§ 165
Judgment is an individual’s reference to the term. It determines the individual in a general way or subsumes it under the General. It has the following levels:
§ 166
) the general as which the individual is defined is itself only some
quality of the same, of which it has several.
§ 167
Reflecting is going beyond a single provision, comparing them with
others and combining them into a certain. - The general makes the inner
nature and essence of the object. This generality is not only a
community, but the own generality of a object to itself, contrary to the
provisions of its own special feature or detail.
§ 168
The actual judgment on an object is the comparison its nature or true
generality with its detail or with the nature of his existence,
comparing what he is with what he’s supposed to be.
(In these judgements lies the dialectic that the bad, his concept is also appropriate to it. A bad house has an existence that is not appropriate to its concept. But if it were only not appropriate for him, it would not be a house at all. The Concept must still be recognisable in existence. So if from one If an act is judged to be bad, its unreasonableness one more side of agreement with reason etc.)
The acumen can also be mentioned here, but it is more likely to be the nature of the judgment than that it does not constitute a genuine step of the same. It consists mainly in identifying differences that are not on the surface, and due to the reflection finer or to notice deeper relationships. - The joke links their outer Seemingly strange ideas one after the other to one side, in to which they present an unexpected equality. - The spiritual realm is a analogue of the reasonable and expresses primarily a determination or relationship, as it appears in his immediate imagination or in himself is itself opposed.
(At sunrise the sky changed from black to red like a cancer. - Le miserable, qu’il est heureux! Il a faim. - Exul mentisque domusque. - Under this stone lies my wife, and here rests her and me too. - On their lounge beds the fat judges dream to to lull their cough and conscience to sleep at the same time, etc.)
C. Reasonable (“vernünftiges”) thinking
§ 170
) Reason is negative or dialectical, in that it makes the passing over
of the mind of the being into its opposite one. Usually the dialectical
appears in such a way that from one subject two opposite predicates are
claimed. The purer dialectical consists in the fact that from a
predicate a determination of mind as it is shown in the same way that it
is the opposite of itself is itself, that is to say, it dissolves within
itself.
§ 171
The reasoning reason seeks the reasons for things, i.e. their law
through and in another, which is the remaining essence of the same, but
at the same time only a relatively unconditional one, in that the reason
or the consequence has a different content than the reason
§ 172
(c) The reasoning that follows contains the communication of a content
that in accordance with the provisions of the term as individual,
special and General behaviour. The special is against the individual a
The general and against the general a definite; it is the middle, which
contains the extremes of the individual and general in itself and to
join forces with them. The conclusive reason is:
c1) formal reason, insofar as the conclusion is subjective. That which
in it as mediated or appears as a consequence, is in itself the
immediate. It has the relationship of a mediated only for
recognition.
c2) Teleological reason considers and sets purposes, uses ratio, in
which the mediated or produced has the same content as the immediate,
the presupposed concept, and in which the Mediated, the consequence, is
just as much the reason.
c3) The idea of reason is the concept in so far as its outward
appearance or his reality is completely determined by him and only in
their concepts exists or the existing, which has its own concept, the
means of itself, the means and the end is.
Second section: The practical mind
§ 173
The practical spirit not only has ideas, but is the living idea yourself. He is the one who determines himself and his Determinations external reality giving spirit. It is to be distinguished between the ego, as it is only theoretical or idealistic and how it practical or real becomes an object, an objectivity.
The practical mind means primarily free will, insofar as the I can abstract from all the definiteness in which it is, and in all Determination remains indefinite and in equality with itself.
The will as the inner defining term is essential Activity and action. He puts his inner determinations into external existence over to present itself as an idea.
This includes the full range of provisions which are change of existence in a direct context stand. Initially, the action only includes what is described in the decision or consciousness. Only this the will recognizes as the His and as his debt, which are actually attributed to him can. But even this is in a broader sense under the guilt of which was not aware of the provisions of the act, but could become conscious.
§ 177
) The practical feeling understands the practical legal and moral
provisions and laws in themselves, but directly, therefore undeveloped
and unthought and primarily impure by the Addition of the subjective
detail. It is essential to note, that the practical feeling has no other
true content than the are certain rights, duties and laws, - that there
are on the one hand dark and determined by the detail, on the other only
in so far as they are placed above the particular consciousness of the
latter than being held on them in isolation and there is a risk of can
be totality.
§ 178
The feeling of a practical purpose and at the same time the feeling of
their contradiction of being an inner, unrealised entity, which
nevertheless at the same time reality is essential, is the drive. It
belongs to the subjective nature and is directed only towards its
determination. The Desire is a single determination of the instinct, and
through Appropriateness or inadequacy of external existence to it the
feeling becomes pleasant or unpleasant. In instinct and desire the
practical spirit is in the naturalness a dependent unfree beings.
§ 179
The spirit must rise from its immersion in the impulses to generality,
so that the shoots are not, in their particularity, considered absolute,
but their provisions are only moments of totality their place and right
value, thus freeing them from the subjective randomly cleaned.
The provisions of the Spirit make up its laws. But they are not external or natural determinations of the same; its the only provision in which all are included is his freedom to both the form and the content of its law, which is a can be legal, moral or political.
I. The Right/Law
§ 181
The spirit as a free, self-conscious being is the same as
itself
, who in his absolutely negative relationship was the first to
exclude
, single free being or person.
The law is the relationship between people, insofar as it is abstract are persons. The act by which the person is not respected as a person or who is not respected in the sphere of of his freedom. This relationship is therefore his negative nature and does not require the other party to to actually do something positive, but only to treat him as a person leave.
The external sphere of justice and freedom is what constitutes property, the subsumption of an abandoned cause under my control and my will. Possession is the side of arbitrary appropriation. The side of ownership as such is the general side that the Possession is an expression of my will, which as something absolute is must be respected by others.
I can dispose of my property, namely what is in fact property is, i. e. what is partly mine, partly the moment the outward appearance of himself. - Inalienable is therefore my reason, my freedom, my personality, and what my contains all freedom essentially within itself.
I can sell my property to someone else and can sell it to someone else Acquire ownership. This acquisition takes place only through the contract, which mutual consent of two persons to acquire a property to leave it to the other person, and the consent to leave it to be accepted.
The sphere of my freedom contains my personality and relationship of one thing to another; by separating this sphere from others is infringed, this may be done either only in the sense that this thing does not belong to me, while my personality is acknowledged; or in the sense that it is not itself recognised, which is not the case in violent injury to my life and limb
In my personality, the other person directly hurts his own. He does not just do something against me, but something General information. What he conceptually did against himself must be reality. - Insofar as this is brought about by the injured person itself, it is revenge; in so far as it is carried out by a general If it is carried out with the will and in the name of it, it is punishment.
The right in relation to property makes the object of the civil or civil law, - the right in relation to the personality is the subject of embarrassing or criminal law. - The science of the basic concepts of law is natural law as if there was a right that man was entitled to by nature and a different one, which would have to be in the sense that it defines natural law as the real ones had to be sacrificed in part. In fact, the following are created by society nor special rights, which are not included in the rights is based solely on the individual personality. But at the same time it is the abolition of the one-sidedness of that principle and the true realisation of the same.
II. The Morality
§ 189
The morality contains the sentence: “look at yourself in your actions
as free being”; or it adds the moment of subjectivity to the moment of
action to ensure that
1. the subjective as the attitude and intention of what is in itself
imperative and that what is compulsory is not due to inclination or
[um]. for the sake of some strange duty or with vanity on the goodness,
but is done out of conviction, because [it] is a duty is;
2. it thus concerns man according to his specificity and is not just
negative like the law. A free being can only walk but to make a
difference to that special person.
The good is the content of the obligations, namely the basic provisions, which contain the necessary human conditions or the Reasonable in the same. Evil is what is done with will on destruction of such a relationship. The bad thing is when, although not with direct intent, but with knowledge, out of weakness against a drive of sensuality or an inclination of the heart Duties be injured.
- the necessary human relations of each person to himself exist
themselves
) in self-preservation, that the individual should be able to see the external physical Nature submits and makes itself appropriate.
From him as his own physical nature it must be subject to his spiritual creating nature independence.
Its general spiritual being must submit to it and appropriate, education in general.
§ 192
2. the family relationship is the natural unity of individuals. The The
bond of this natural society is love and trust, the knowledge this
original unity and acting in the spirit of it. According to their
specific purpose, the individuals who are to society; however, in so far
as these rights are to be found in the rights, the moral bond of these
rights would be the society, in which everyone is essentially torn from
the spirit of the Love gets what it deserves.
§ 193
3. the moral relationship with others in general is based on original
identity of human nature. The duties of the general love of humanity
consist in a benevolent attitude, in the general, essential services at
the whim of a ratio. Moral duties to be specified and permanent Services
arise from the free will of the individual Relationship of acquaintance
and friendship.
(Here are the last limits of finiteness. It comes down to the moment on).
III The State (Real Spirit)
§ 194
The natural society of the family is expanding into a general society, which is just as much a society founded by nature as a as a connection entered into by free will and is as much based on the law than is based on morality, but not at all so essential as a society consisting of individuals rather than as a society in itself of some individual folk spirit appears.
Political science is the representation of the organisation, which is a people as a living organic whole.
The state, as the general, makes the opposition to the individuals. He is all the more perfect, the more the general corresponds to reason and the more the individuals are one with the spirit of the whole. The the essential attitude of citizens against the State and its government is neither blind obedience to their orders, nor that to institutions and measures in the state each has its individual consent, but trust and more insightful Obedience to the same.
The state contains various powers, which determine the moments of its Organization. The legislative, judicial and executive Violence in general are the abstract moments of it. - The real The powers are those that constitute the whole, the judicial and police, financial and administrative, military and political violence, each of which actually contains those abstract moments occur. - The uppermost actuating centre of all Government.
The different states of a state are actually concrete differences according to which individuals are divided into classes that mainly on the inequality of wealth, education and Education, like this one, is partly based on the inequality of birth which makes the individual a form of activity for the state more usefulness than to another.
The constitution sets out the separation and relationship between the various and the sphere of action of each, primarily the rights of individuals in relation to the state and the proportion of their participation which they do not merely government, but also, insofar as they are citizens at all, have should be.
Customs, laws and constitution make the organised inner life of a popular spirit. The principle or the nature and purpose of its Its essence is expressed in it. It also has an external relationship and external fates.
§ 201
This so to speak historical story considers the existence of a spirit of the people, the development of its principle in its constitution and laws and in its fates in an outward manner according to the Perception of the events and the immediate causes, as described in circumstances and individual characters.
Philosophical history does not only summarise the principle of a people from its institutions and fates and develops the from the first, but mainly looks at the general world spirit, as it is described in an inner context by the history of the seemingly separated nations and their fates the has gone through various stages of his education. It represents the general spirit as substance appearing in his commercial work, so that they do not alter its shape or appearance in any way is uniformly formed. Its higher representation is its design in simple spiritual form.
(Not all peoples in world history count. Each one has according to its principle its point, moment. Then it seems that it stands for always off. It is no coincidence that his series comes :-)
Third section - The spirit in its pure representation
I. The Art
§ 203
Art places the mind in individuality and at the same time purified from accidental existence and its changes and of external conditions and objectively for viewing and imagination. The beauty of and for itself is the object of art, not the imitation of nature, which itself is only a temporal and unfree imitation of the idea. The aesthetics look at the closer forms of this beautiful representation.
(Art depends on what substantial consciousness the mind is. We study the Greek works, therefore we are not Greek. The imagination, but the inner productive life, - that we that are themselves. The popular imagination is not superstition about something, but one’s own spirit; the so-called miraculous is a ridiculous Machinery; Mistake Klopstock with his angels, Nordic gods. The living mythology of a people therefore makes the reason and content of his art).
Two main forms or styles of art can be distinguished, the antique and modern. The character of the first is plastic, objective, of the others romantic, subjective. The ancient one represents the individuality as a general, essential character, without therefore becoming abstraction and allegory, but living Totality remains. In the objective clarity and attitude he erases the random and arbitrary of the subjective.
The arts differ according to genres by the element in which they represent the beautiful and through which the object and spirit of this presentation is defined in more detail. For the external view painting is a colourful design on a surface, sculpture a colourless design in physical form. For the inner view presents the music in unimaginative tones, the poetry through language.
(Eloquence, architecture, garden design etc. are not pure fine arts, because they have a different purpose than the presentation of the Beautiful).
The main genres of poetry are the epic, lyrical and dramatic. The former presents an object as an external event, the second represents a single sensation or the subjective movement, the third is the actual movement, the third is Action as an effect of the will.
II. The Religion
§ 207
Religion does not give the representation of the absolute spirit merely for and imagination, but also for the thought and knowledge. Its main purpose is to help the individual to the thought God, to bring forth his unity with him and to make it of the same.
(Religion is the truth as it is for all people. The essence of true religion is love. It is essential sentiments as Knowledge of the truth of the human will. The religious love is not only natural pendency or only moral Benevolence, not an indeterminate general feeble-minded sentiment, but [it] proves itself in detail with absolute sacrifice. “Love one another as I have loved you. - The religious love is the infinite power over all finite of the spirit, about bad, evil, crime, also positive laws and so on. Christ had his disciples pull out ears of grain on the Sabbath and healed a sick hand. The divine love forgives sin, makes for the spirit Done undone. Much is forgiven Mary Magdalene because loved her a lot. Love is itself beyond the considerations of the Moral beyond: Mary anoints Christ instead of giving it to the poor, and Christ approves this. - The substantial relationship of man to God is the forgiveness of sins. The reason for love is the Consciousness of God and his essence as love and therefore they at the same time the highest humility. I am not supposed to have the objectivity in love, but God, but in his knowledge I should be myself forgotten. - The forgiveness of sin is not a temporal thing, not A consequence of external punishment, but an eternal, inner one in spirit and mind. The destruction of its nothingness is the sovereignty of love. - The substantial relationship of man to God seems to be in its truth to be a hereafter, but the love of God for man and the Man to God lifts the separation of this world from that which is considered Beyond imagined and is eternal life.
This identity is looked at in Christ. As Son of Man he is Son of God. There is no afterlife for the God-man. Not as this individual, but as a more general one, as the true human being. The external side of its history must be distinguished from the religious will be. He is surrounded by reality, lowliness, shamelessness passed through, died. His pain was the depth of the unity of divine and human nature in life and suffering. The blessed Gods of the pagans were presented as being in a hereafter; through Christ is the common reality, this lowliness which is not is contemptible, self-sacred. His resurrection and ascension are only for faith: Stephen saw him in the face on the right of God. God’s eternal life is this, the return in Himself. Doubt from circumstances to specify in detail whether this is an external Reality, is ridiculous, pathetic. It comes to the belief that sensual happenings, but on what is eternally happening. History of God.
The reconciliation of God with man as happening in and for itself, not as a coincidence, as an arbitrariness of God, is not knew. To know this is the holy spirit of the church. - The Kingdom God is first of all the invisible church, which covers all zones and different religions; then the outer church. -
- In the Catholic Church, the congregation is divided in itself as Priests and laity. They are the authorised representatives and exercise authority. Reconciliation with God is made partly outwardly; in general there is a more unspiritual reality of religion among Catholics.
- Among Protestants, priests are only teachers. All are in the Church before God as equal to the present spirit of the church. The Works as such are powerless. On faith, on the attitude comes it on. Evil is known as something that is in and of itself void. This Pain must permeate the person. He must accept the grace of God to to him in spite of the evil, if he gives it up and withdraws from it unite, freely grasp. Only in the mind does the real Communion with God. In him also the sensual form of sacraments).
III Science
§ 208
Science is the grasping knowledge of the absolute spirit. By conceiving it in conceptual form, all strangeness in knowledge and this has the perfect equality with itself has been achieved. It is the concept which has itself as a content and understands.